What are Military Simulations?
What are Military Simulations?
What are Military Simulations?
Some of the most well-known games (chess, checkers, and Go) can all trace their lineages toward battles, warfare, and general conflict and combat. These are all related (at least in some way) to the way that humans have waged war against each other for millennia.
But if these games are based on warfare, then what was their original purpose? Why recreate battles and tactics in this format? This can usually be answered in the creation of military simulations, which often have the same goals and outcomes of applied games in teaching, training, learning and development.
This article will discuss military simulations by first defining what simulations are and then differentiating general simulations from military simulations. A brief history of military simulations will be covered as well as how military simulations are compared to wargaming in both professional and commercial contexts.
The advantages and uses of military simulations will be discussed as well as different types of military simulations and how they are deployed. These usually include live, virtual, and constructed simulations.
Since these limitations are usually used for teaching and learning, authenticity and fidelity become critical aspects for determining if a simulation met its stated and intended aim and if it was worth the time and effort participating in it.
If these needs are met then, the application of learning from such simulation will have been well earned and have useful ramifications further down the line. However, there are still limits to what military simulations can and cannot provide. How learning is applied, and the limits of their use, will also be discussed.
Finally, this article will close on the outlying outcomes of military simulations as well as future developments and what they mean for gamers and warfighters alike.
Simulations vs. Military Simulations
Before we discuss military simulations, we must first define simulations. Simulations are models that mimic real or planned systems to test scenarios or decision making. These types of simulations can be further broken down into three types: discrete, dynamic, and process-oriented simulations.
Discrete simulations are meant to test and observe sequences over time. This could include manufacturing processes or the flow of car traffic through a city. Dynamic simulations are meant to observe and experience motion throughout a space. This could include machines and moving parts as well as ergonomic functions of furniture and tools. Process simulations are meant to test physical interactions with one another. You could consider physical chemistry experiments a “process simulation” as much as you could consider physical product testing a “dynamic simulation.”
These different types of simulations could also be used for different purposes such as for organizational change. This could be observed in business simulations where small scale studies are examined to determine the impact of a change of organizational operations. Simulations used in this way are meant to study the outcomes and methods in order to help the organization improve.
Conversely, simulations could also be used for facilitation. One of the most common methods in instruction and teaching is the use of rough, hypothetical, and “back-of-the-napkin” models that test a theory in order to spark group discussion and learning.
All of this is to say that these simulations can and are used for military purposes. Military simulations are a specific kind of simulation that lets armed forces explore tactics, strategy, and policy without sacrificing critical resources. They also span applications like live exercises to abstract computer models.
Many modern military simulations are connected to and leverage advanced technologies like virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence and cover aspects including warfighting, logistics, cooperation, and communication.
However, like other simulations, military simulations are meant to simulate real world processes or systems using models that help determine how they behave under different conditions. Which is helpful because they are meant to help individuals understand, experiment, and make decisions.
History of Military Simulations
Military simulations are not anything new. The way that we use and apply how we learn from them is. But the formats and reasons why we use them are as old as games themselves.
The origins of military simulations can be traced back to the works of Sun Tzu and the Art of War and the use of medieval sand tables to map out plans for a battle. However, the modern iterations of military simulations can trace its lineage back to the 19th century Prussian Kriegsspiel where military leaders used such “games” as an abstracted exercise to plan and refine strategy. Such use forms the basis of how modern simulations are used today.
The Kriegsspiel was used in its time and for its own purposes for the same reasons that we use military simulations today: that is because live exercises are both costly and can be risky for valuable resources.
Therefore, the forerunners for the modern adaptation of military simulations are what current service academies and war colleges use today to train and instruct their students. However, with the advent of the Kriegsspiel came the divergence between the military simulations meant for teaching and training and that of wargaming. The latter grew to influence global applications of military simulations. These in turn influenced the German, US, and British military strategy during World War II and further into the cold war. These kinds of “wargames” are most indicative for miniature representation of actual units on a map that are meant to represent and simulate battles and conflicts between adversaries. Such development grew into professional applications of wargaming.
Professional Wargaming
Like a military simulation, a wargame is a strategy simulation where two or more adversaries manage opposing forces in scenarios of armed conflict. Professional wargames are used by military, leaders, and researchers for training and experimentation. In turn, these wargames vary by level and encompass everything from tactical applications representing single battles, operational levels representing campaigns, or strategic levels representing an entire war.
At all levels, players expect special dedication towards the scale of the conflict, unknown information (also known as the fog of war), and adjudication by an impartial third party (umpires). Therefore, unlike military simulations, wargames are meant to balance aspects of fidelity and realism against playability.
Therefore, in order to achieve the aims and goals of professional wargames, they must often focus on realism of the scenario rather than balance or fairness for the players. This is addressed through game structure as well as expert umpires who adjudicate such games to more accurately represent real-world asymmetries.
This means that wargames represent a crucial part in understanding conflicts. Since they are made of game structures and the subjective interpretation of umpires, they can often be imprecise in their study of uncertain problems. Therefore, their use is meant to gain knowledge and insights and not necessarily proof that given tactics or strategies will have the same success in real world scenarios.
Commercial Wargaming
Wargaming has two sides. The first comes from its origin to plan and practice military strategies as a military simulation. The other is to play and enjoy gaming in a recreational format. Thus, commercial wargames have been a staple for recreational gamers and encompass board games involving hex grids, cardboard chits, and various stats as popularized by Avalon ill and SPI during the 1970’s.
Perhaps the most common aspect of commercial wargaming is through the use of miniatures like in Warhammer 40,000 encompassing a sci-fi theme, Lion Rampant (medieval theme), Flames of War and PanzerBlitz (WWII) and “lighter” skirmish oriented games like Saga or Memoir 44.
More modern aspects of these commercial wargames involve COIN, Combat Commander, and Commands and Colors offering diverse themes, locations, and aspects to satisfy the demands and desires of hobbyists and enthusiasts for this genre.
Perhaps one of the most popular “wargames” is the board game Twilight Struggle that abstracts the two opposing powers of the Cold War represented by the United States and the USSR through highly asymmetrical play that embodies both military posturing as well as the encompassing politics of the era. Other commercial wargames such as A Few Acres of Snow mix traditional aspects of area and unit control with novel game mechanics such as deckbuilding.
Commercial wargaming is not limited to only highly abstracted tabletop applications. Military simulations also take on the form of (MilSim) in the commercial world and dates back to the 1980’s in Japan. These games include live simulated battles at an individual level utilizing realistic airsoft guns or paintball markers. These live simulated battles can take place in a physical location or online via commercially available tactical shooters such as the Arma series. Such applications have been realistic enough to also be used for actual military training.
Overall, commercial wargaming (whether on the tabletop or through live-action military simulations) blends realism, strategy, and immersion in these environments. However, unlike their professional counterparts, the main goal is not to train, learn, and experiment but rather to play and enjoy a military “themed” game in different contexts and modalities.
Why Use Military Simulations?
The professional and practical reasons for using military simulations are to exercise the practice of making decisions: whether at the individual or strategic level. These can be accomplished for different reasons such as rehearsing procedures, exchanging ideas, or replicating entire systems.
Strategically, military simulations are essential for modern militaries and fighting forces because they are a means to improve overall readiness while also reducing the cost burden to accomplish that end. These costs are often seen in personnel, material, and time. Such a simulation can be used to achieve different learning aims without buying new equipment or changing actual processes.
This is even more prevalent for strategic insights as the data and knowledge gained from such military simulations can be evaluated, judged, and interpreted to better prepare and react to the same or similar scenario occurring in real life. This directly relates to the repeatable nature of military simulations - especially virtual ones - where different strategies, tactics, and actions can be tested and compared rigorously to one another to determine the best actions to take to achieve the desired result.
Types of Military Simulations
Military simulations can be wargames and wargames can be military simulations. There are also different types of military simulations that can be used and leveraged for different outcomes and applications. Thes are generally separated into three types: heuristic, stochastic, and constructed simulations.
Heuristic simulations are not meant to predict a specific outcome, but are rather used to explore different strategies, develop ideas and encourage planning through experimentation. Such examples can be used to test new combat doctrines and how they might be used against an adversary who has prepared a specific type of defense.
Conversely stochastic simulations are military simulations that include random variables. These are meant to provide probabilistic events that reflect uncertainty in real world conditions. Building on our prior example of the heuristic simulation to test a new combat doctrine, a stochastic simulation could include variables that address how the adversary may react in accordance with their traditional strategies or may even include how other nation states or threat actors may enter the simulation based on the occurring activities.
Both heuristic and stochastic simulations can be combined as a whole or in part with mathematical or computer-based models on the knowledge and intelligence of a particular question. These are usually combined with more robust mathematical models that provide more detailed models in constructed simulations. These simulations differ from both heuristic and stochastic simulations because individuals do not directly operate equipment or engage in live action with other adversaries. Instead, they input their decisions into a system which models the outcome. An example is a campaign commander who wishes to move troops from one location to another and is given the outcome and probability that such an action is successful.
Heuristic, stochastic, and constructed simulations can take place in live or virtual modalities to create a more comprehensive training experience to further development of, experiment with, and practice skills. The live, virtual, or constructed (LVC) simulations different in their practice and application based on the amount of input required from human operators or automated through systems.
Live Military Simulations
Live military simulations are perhaps the most well-known type of simulation. This is where individual warfighters are provided live and real equipment, moving in a physical space, and participating in mock scenarios.
Live simulations provide the highest fidelity of simulation because it involves actual movement and practice in a physical space with real equipment but through controlled environments. One might think of these kinds of live exercises like laser tag, but with tanks, vehicles, ships, aircraft, and individual operators. This is meant to replicate as much as possible the sense and feeling of real combat.
Comparatively, the next level would include virtual military simulations which still involve an immersive environment but utilizes simulated equipment.
Virtual Military Simulations
Virtual military simulations take place in virtual environments. These are often seen in commercial and military applications through flight simulations that allow personnel to experience and practice in a low-risk environment.
These can also be interpreted as “synthetic training environments” (STEs). They are meant to replicate (as closely and with as high fidelity as possible) actual real-world environments and situations for training purposes. These kinds of military simulations are usually experienced using personalized headsets up to larger vehicular, room, or building sized equipment to fully immerse individuals and help them practice and polish their skills without the inherent risk of live simulations.
High fidelity is often one of the hallmarks of these virtual simulations as they are meant to replicate all aspects of a specific mission or vehicle. Therefore, abstraction is minimized and individuals who experience these kinds of military simulations usually do so in order to accomplish a specific training or learning outcomes with direct applications
Constructed Military Simulations
Finally, there are constructed military simulations. These are usually deployed as very high-level strategic wargames meant to apply and test different doctrines and strategies. This means that the size, shape, and scale of these kinds of simulations often require a high level of abstraction for the theories and strategies tested.
This is usually experienced through a specifically created tabletop or computer experience for hypothetical situations of strategic planning and warfighting operations. It is necessary to do so because these kinds of military simulations focus on the very aspects of strategy and planning that are meant to evaluate and analyze tactics and operational plans that would be difficult or impossible to replicate in live training.
This means that these high-level construct military simulations also involve a fair amount of roleplaying in which participants take different roles to simulate a real-world situation. This usually means that one group of participants represents the sponsoring military while the other presents the “red team” or aggressors who are engaged in a conflict.
This results in adversaries who are very familiar with the operations, strategies, and tactics of the “blue team.” Therefore, it is often necessary to fully examine the outcomes of these kinds of high level constructed military simulations to determine if the fidelity and authenticity of its application produced results useful for future study and learning.
Fidelity and Authenticity
How close a simulation represents a real-world phenomenon is called “fidelity.” Fidelity and authenticity are important for military simulations whose goals are to accurately recreate and model real world actions for training, learning, and experimentation.
However, this level of fidelity seen in wargames varies greatly. Abstract board games like chess are highly abstract. Units are represented by pieces with specific movement patterns that govern their use in the game. Whereas flight simulators have high degree of fidelity and are meant to replicate flying a particular type of aircraft as realistically as possible.
The most critical aspects to consider here are not whether military simulations have high fidelity and authenticity, but rather what level of fidelity is important to the needs and outcomes of the simulation. Excessive realism can obscure insights if the purpose of the simulation is to gather high level data. Whereas making the simulation too abstract risks oversimplification and irrelevance of lessons learned.
For many strategic, constructed military simulations, fidelity is incredibly important, as a realistic scenario can also incorporate non-military elements such as political and ideological factors. However, the same level of fidelity for street-to-street and house-to-house urban combat is not as necessary to meet the simulation’s goals. Whereas hyper realistic scenarios that allow front line combat personnel to accurately model and recreate these scenarios are much more important to them.
Fidelity and authenticity in military simulations is also hampered by great uncertainty. Especially at strategic levels where the outcomes of campaigns and individual operations complicate the overall outcome and picture of strategic decision making. This aspect is compounded with many commercial and professional wargames known as the “fog of war” which blocks, obscures, and denies clear information so that no individual has complete and total information at their disposal.
In all, the authenticity and fidelity of simulations directly addresses and informs the application of learning from partaking in these activities.
Application of Learning
For the individual, the learning applications of participating in simulations can often be simple. They review, rehearse, and reinforce how procedures are followed and implemented. They assess how new changes are made and determine how equipment will work in practice. For constructed simulations they can test and evaluate different strategies and doctrines.
Stochastic simulations are also able to introduce random variables and disruptions which may upset normal procedures and force individuals to improvise and adapt accordingly. It is these kinds of incidents where most learning occurs in the authoring and review of after-action reports (AAR) where actions are reviewed, evaluated, and conclusions are drawn. These are meant to inform actions and procedures in the future.
These kinds of applications are also documented in observer-trainer (OT) individuals who may participate in simulations to monitor participants and provide immediate feedback, guidance, and coaching. This can have a crucial impact in helping individuals learn from their experiences immediately and improve their performance.
Overall, the application of learning is tied to the type, method, and review of the simulation. No number of iterations of military simulations can ever fully capture the chaos of armed conflict, but they can help individuals prepare for challenges outside of normal operations often addressing the morale of individuals, the results of fearful reactions, and resilience of leadership. In the end, these simulations mean to provide individuals with decision-making practice.
Limitations of Military Simulations
For all its flexibility and benefits there are still some limitations to using military simulations in practice. This is especially true in the post-World War II world where political-military simulations grew to include actions influenced by diplomacy, ideology, and the prevalence of asymmetric warfare.
The growth of these areas, in addition to subjective mistakes and constraints extending from errors (i.e. bad rules and player disengagement), can distort the outcomes of these simulations. This makes it so that a careful and disciplined analysis of the results and lessons learned from military simulations are integral.
This is especially true with the prevalence and danger of bias which games can produce when umpiring live and constructed simulations are deployed impartially This combined with the promotion of specific agendas can suppress “hard truths” and undermine the very nature of learning from simulations.
Therefore, it is often necessary to examine the outcomes of simulations as means of exploring issues and answering questions to aid processes, but not necessarily to “prove” theories or predict outcomes. The nature of warfare and conflict is such that outcomes can never truly be known, but varied results can be prepared for.
If anything, military simulations share the same results of games as the outcomes are conditional based on specific circumstances, values, and decisions by the participants. They serve as a utility to problem solving – rather than a means to accurately predict behavior. This means that military simulations are used for revealing relationships between causes and effects, highlighting problems, and overall preparing decision makers for the inevitable choices they must make.
While the results of military simulations can be debated and discussed, their overall validity remains one of the most contested limitations. The most advanced models cannot predict the future, and the most modern technology is only as good as the individuals who design, run, and interpret the results. As such, groups of stakeholders may form “echo-chambers” which reflect positive assumptions rather than exposing weaknesses and faults.
Therefore, the great limitation of military simulations are that they are merely simulated environments as a means for individuals to make decisions. The results of those decisions are not as important as the thinking, discussion, and action it took to make them. This is the real value of military simulations: that they are meant to test gaps in thinking, ideas in practice, and eventually train decision makers with actionable insights.
Outlying Outcomes
There are other outcomes of engaging with military simulations outside of what is expected from training and preparedness. That is the effects that warfare can have with other stakeholders such as civilian populations who often find themselves in the middle of an armed conflict.
This War of Mine is a commercial game that explores this concept. While not a military simulation per-se; it does encompass many of the aspects that warfare takes on this population and does well at simulating the ambiguous and ethically challenging decisions surrounding those refugees who are often thrown into this state.
This level of “emotional realism” is meant to make players feel, relate, and empathize with the experience of warfare from someone who can only endure it rather than actively participate in it. It does not sugarcoat their challenges; but is rather meant to simulate what it is like to exist in such harsh conditions not often described or included in other military simulations.
Such aspects are not usually addressed in other constructed and strategic simulations because understanding such experiences are not the main reasons for their creation. However, careful focus should be placed on these kinds of experiences so as to better understand the moral implications that such actions can have.
The Future of Military Simulations
Technology, like most things, greatly enhances and increases the scope and applications of the tools that we use. Military simulations are no exception. Advanced computing allows users to run complex wargames and scenarios utilizing different variables to simulate different outcomes. Additionally, modern modelling blends virtual reality (VR), and augmented reality (AR) to create realistic and interactive elements that support various levels of immersion and replicate scenarios with high fidelity.
Emergence of mixed reality (MR) simulations allow for the creation of live virtual constructed (LVC) simulations that faithfully recreate environments for different uses including testing, training, and examining human factors related to decision making. Most recently this has been combined with artificial intelligence (AI) to produce realistic visuals, spontaneously generated language, and evolving opponents that learn and adapt to the actions of its adversaries.
The use of AI has made it so that training scenarios no longer have predictable outcomes for participants. Rather, facing a complex and unpredictable opponent, they force individuals to adapt dynamically to changing situations that include socio-political and cyber threats in addition to traditional military ones. Such dynamics changes have been replicated in abstract games such as the development of AlphaGO that can help humans learn unfamiliar but effective strategies.
However, with the advent of any technology, trustworthiness is determined by how well the outcomes of its use match the expectations for its users. Whether that has enhanced training, hypothesis testing, or replicating decision frameworks, military simulations remain a technology whose impact is limited only by our own imaginations.
Takeaways
This article examined military simulations. It began by first defining what simulations are and how military simulations are situated within their greater framework. The history of military simulations was discussed in addition to the connected field of wargaming in both professional and commercial contexts.
Reasons behind using military simulations were shared as well as the different types of military simulations including, live, virtual, and constructed simulations. Of all these different types, fidelity and authenticity were discussed as it relates to the expected outcomes of using these simulations and how learning is applied from their use.
This article closed on the limitations of military simulations, their outlying outcomes, as well as what the future holds for military simulations with the advent of advanced technologies such as virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence.
This article covered military simulations. To learn more about gamification, check out the free course on Gamification Explained.
Dave Eng, EdD
Principal
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Cite this Article
Eng, D. (2025, September 9). What are Military Simulations?. Retrieved MONTH DATE, YEAR, from https://www.universityxp.com/blog/2025/9/4/what-are-military-simulations
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